6. Summary
This research paper provides a complex picture of the role of social learning during childhood in explaining later intimate partner violence. While many of the earliest studies show associations between childhood exposure to violence (either as a witness or as a victim), most of these studies have methodological weaknesses, such as the use of clinic or shelter samples (which generally show a stronger relationship between early and later violence), small samples, lack of comparison groups, and use of retrospective data and analyses. The relationship, however, is also supported in the stronger studies employing national samples. However, more sophisticated analyses, using multivariate statistics, have commonly demonstrated that the relationship between parental violence in childhood and later intimate partner violence could be explained by other social, family, and contextual factors.
The preponderance of evidence suggests that while social learning is a viable explanation for intimate partner violence, its explanatory power is weak to moderate, and the mechanisms for intergenerational transmission of abusive parenting are complex and remain unspecified.
7. Prevention Implications
There are many reasons for preventing child abuse and child exposure to violence—one reason is some moderate potential to reduce intimate partner violence in later adulthood. Early intervention may restore normal developmental processes, such as empathy and self-control, that promote healthy nonviolent relationships. Since the family provides a context for early learning of violence, programs that intervene with the family should have farreaching effects. Children are especially vulnerable to the effects of harsh, permissive, and inconsistent parenting. High levels of parental negative affect and hostility are disruptive to children’s ability to regulate their emotional responses and manage conflict appropriately. Patterson, Reid, and Dishion (1992) use social learning theory to describe an interactive pattern of behavior between parent and child, the ‘‘coercive process,’’ whereby children learn to escape or avoid parental criticism by escalating their negative behaviors. This, in turn, leads to increasingly aversive parent interactions and escalating dysregulation on the part of the child. These negative parent responses directly model and reinforce the child’s deviant behaviors. This suggests the need to teach parent skills that emphasize changing negative parenting practices, such as coercive discipline and punishment, and that teach parents how to handle conflict, maintain self-control, and problem-solve to effectively manage children. Clinical experience indicates that coercive discipline patterns among parents are difficult to change as children reach adolescence; thus families should be targeted before the children reach late childhood and before patterns of physical abuse become entrenched in the child and reproduced in later relationships.
There are several selected (secondary prevention) evidence-based parent training programs that target high-risk families. The Nurse-Family Partnership (Olds et al. 1998) is an effective method of reducing child abuse and neglect and later antisocial and criminal behavior on the part of children. It provides supports for first-time and other high-risk mothers during pregnancy and through the child’s second birthday. Parents are provided educational content, supports, and skills designed to improve pregnancy outcomes, improve the child’s health and development, and improve the mother’s own personal development. The Incredible Years Parent, Teacher, and Child Training Series (Webster- Stratton et al. 2001) is designed to promote emotional and social competence in young children, ages two to eight, at risk for or presenting with conduct problems. The program for parents imparts skills such as how to play with children, ways to help children learn, effective praise and use of incentives, and effective limit-setting and strategies for handling misbehavior. In the advanced program, parents are also taught interpersonal skills such as effective communication, anger management, and problem-solving between adults. The Child Program intervenes with children who exhibit particular behaviors that place them at risk for later adolescent and adult violence. Although the program has not been tested to determine its effects on child abuse, the skills that parents gain and the reduction in conduct disorders among children may ultimately impact child abuse.
There is also evidence that a well-developed capacity for empathy inhibits or prevents aggression, suggesting that programs that work with children to develop social and emotional competencies may have long-term benefits. Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) is a universal (primary prevention) school program for children in kindergarten through grade 5 that teaches empathy and behavioral regulation to prevent initiation of aggressive behavior (Greenberg, Kusche, and Mihalic 2002).
Indicated (tertiary prevention) programs target populations already exhibiting the problem, such as domestic violence perpetrators and victims. Although numerous treatment options for batterers (e.g., cognitive-behavioral therapy, individual and group counseling, mandated arrest) have been evaluated, there is little empirical support that any of these treatment modalities stop the violence. Few studies have evaluated advocacy studies for victims, but at least two studies show promise for this approach (Goodman and Epstein 2005; Stover 2005). Until programs can be found that have demonstrated effects working with adult perpetrators and victims, early intervention models appear the most promising.
Also check the list of domestic violence research topics and all criminal justice research topics.
Bibliography:
- Andrews, B., and G. W. Brown. ‘‘Marital Violence in the Community: A Biographical Approach.’’ British Journal of Psychiatry 153 (1988): 305–312.
- Bandura, A. Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1969.
- ———. Psychological Modeling. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton, 1971.
- ———. Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973.
- Belsky, J., S. R. Jaffee, J. Sligo, P.A. Silva, and L. Woodward. ‘‘Intergenerational Transmission of Warm-Sensitive- Stimulating Parenting: A Prospective Study of Mothers and Fathers of 3-Year-Olds.’’ Child Development 76 (2005): 384–396.
- Browne, S. F. Analysis of a Battered Women Population. Denver, CO: Denver Anti-Crime Council, 1980.
- Burgess, A. W., C. R. Hartman, and A. McCormack. ‘‘Abused to Abuser: Antecedents of Socially Deviant Behaviors.’’ American Journal of Psychiatry 144, no. 11 (1987): 1431–1436.
- Cappell, C., and R. B. Heiner. ‘‘The Intergenerational Transmission of Family Aggression.’’ Journal of Family Violence 5, no. 2 (1990): 135–152.
- Coleman, D. H., and M. A. Straus. ‘‘Marital Power, Conflict, and Violence in a Nationally Representative Sample of American Couples.’’ Violence and Victims 1, no. 2 (1986): 141–156.
- Cummings, J. G., D. J. Pepler, and T. E. Moore. ‘‘Behavior Problems in Children Exposed to Wife Abuse: Gender Differences.’’ Journal of Family Violence 14, no. 2 (1999): 133–156.
- Ehrensaft, M. K., P. Cohen, J. Brown, E. Smailes, H. Chen, and J. G. Johnson. ‘‘Intergenerational Transmission of Partner Violence: A 20-Year Prospective Study.’’ Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71, no. 4 (2003): 741–753.
- Elliott, D. S., and S. F. Mihalic, eds. Blueprints for Violence Prevention Series. Books 1–11. Boulder: University of Colorado, Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, 2003. http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/.
- Fagan, J. A., D. K. Stewart, and K. V. Hansen. ‘‘Violent Men or Violent Husbands? Background Factors and Situational Correlates.’’ In The Dark Side of Families, edited by D. Finkelhor, R. J. Gelles, G. T. Hotaling, and M. A. Straus. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1983.
- Fantuzzo, J. W., and C. U. Lindquist. ‘‘The Effects of Observing Conjugal Violence on Children: A Review and Analysis of Research Methodology.’’ Journal of Family Violence 4 (1989): 77–94.
- Fergusson, D. M., and L. J. Horwood. ‘‘Exposure to Interparental Violence in Childhood and Psychosocial Adjustment in Young Adulthood.’’ Child Abuse and Neglect 22, no. 5 (1998): 339–357.
- Forsstrom, B., and A. Rosenbaum. ‘‘The Effects of Parental Marital Violence on Young Adults: An Exploratory Investigation.’’ Journal of Marriage and Family 47, no. 2 (1985): 467–480.
- Gelles, R. The Violent Home: A Study of Physical Aggression between Husbands and Wives. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1972.
- Goodman, L., and D. Epstein. ‘‘Refocusing on Women: A New Direction for Policy and Research on Intimate Partner Violence.’’ Journal of Interpersonal Violence 20, no. 4 (2005): 479–487.
- Greenberg, M. T., C. Kusche, and S. F. Mihalic. Blueprints for Violence Prevention: Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies. Boulder: University of Colorado, Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, 2002.
- Herrenkohl, E. C., R. C. Herrenkohl, and L. J. Toedter. ‘‘Perspectives on the Intergenerational Transmission of Abuse.’’ In Finkelhor et al., The Dark Side of Families, 1983.
- Herrera, V. M., and L. A. McCloskey. ‘‘Gender Differences in the Risk for Delinquency among Youth Exposed to Family Violence.’’ Child Abuse and Neglect 25 (2001): 1037–1051.
- Heyman, R. E., and A. M. Slep. ‘‘Do Child Abuse and Interparental Violence Lead to Adulthood Family Violence?’’ Journal of Marriage and Family 64 (2002): 864–870.
- Hotaling, G. T., M. A. Straus, and A. J. Lincoln. ‘‘Intrafamily Violence and Crime and Violence Outside the Family.’’ In Physical Violence in American Families: Risk Factors and Adaptations to Violence in 8,145 Families, edited by M. A. Straus and R. J. Gelles. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1990.
- Hotaling, G. T., and D. B. Sugarman. ‘‘An Analysis of Risk Markers in Husband to Wife Violence: The Current State of Knowledge.’’ Violence and Victims 1, no. 2 (1986): 101–124.
- ———. ‘‘A Risk Marker Analysis of Assaulted Wives.’’ Journal of Family Violence 5 (1990): 1–13.
- Kalmuss, D. ‘‘The Intergenerational Transmission of Marital Aggression.’’ Journal of Marriage and Family (February 1984): 11–19.
- Kaufman, J., and E. Zigler. ‘‘Do Abused Children Become Abusive Parents?’’ American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 57, no. 2 (1987): 186–192.
- Kitzman, K. M., N. K. Gaylord, A. R. Holt, and E. D. Kenny. ‘‘Child Witnesses to Domestic Violence: A Meta-Analytic Review.’’ Journal of Consulting and Clinicial Psychology 71, no. 2 (2003): 339–352.
- Kolbo, J. R., E. H. Blakely, and D. Engleman. ‘‘Children Who Witness Domestic Violence: A Review of Empirical Literature.’’ Journal of Interpersonal Violence 11, no. 2 (1996): 281–293.
- Larzelere, R. E. ‘‘Moderate Spanking: Model or Deterrent of Children’s Aggression in the Family?’’ Journal of Family Violence 1, no. 1 (1986): 27–36.
- Margolin, G. ‘‘Effects of Domestic Violence on Children.’’ In Violence against Children in the Family and Community, edited by P. K. Trickett and C. J. Schellenback. Washington DC: American Psychological Association, 1998.
- McCloskey, L. A., and E. L. Lichter. ‘‘The Contribution of Marital Violence to Adolescent Aggression across Different Relationships.’’ Journal of Interpersonal Violence 18, no. 4 (2003): 390–412.
- McCord, J. ‘‘Parental Behavior in the Cycle of Aggression.’’ Psychiatry 51, no. 1 (1988): 14–23.
- Mihalic, S., and D. Elliott. ‘‘A Social Learning Theory Model of Marital Violence.’’ Journal of Family Violence 12, no. 1 (1997): 21–47.
- Muller, R. T., J. E. Hunter, and G. Stollak. ‘‘The Intergenerational Transmission of Corporal Punishment: A Comparison of Social Learning and Temperament Models.’’ Child Abuse and Neglect 19, no. 11 (1995): 1323–1335.
- Okun, L. Woman Abuse: Facts Replacing Myths. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986.
- Olds, D. L., P. L. Hill, S. F. Mihalic, and R. A. O’Brien. Blueprints for Violence Prevention: Prenatal and Infancy Home Visitation by Nurses. Boulder: University of Colorado, Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, 1998.
- Patterson, G. R., J. Reid, and T. Dishion. Antisocial Boys: A Social Interactional Approach, vol. 4. Eugene, OR: Castalia Publishing, 1992.
- Rosenbaum, A., and K. D. O’Leary. ‘‘Children: The Unintended Victims of Marital Violence.’’ American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 51, no. 4 (1981): 692–699.
- Roy, M. Battered Women: A Psychosociological Study of Domestic Violence. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.
- Schwartz, I. M., J. A. Rendon, and C. Hsieh. ‘‘Is Child Maltreatment a Leading Cause of Delinquency?’’ Child Welfare 73, no. 5 (1994): 639–655.
- Seltzer, J. A., and D. Kalmuss. ‘‘Socialization and Stress Explanations for Spouse Abuse.’’ Social Forces 67, no. 2 (1988): 473–491.
- Steinmetz, S. K. The Cycle of Violence: Assertive, Aggressive, and Abusive Family Interaction. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1977.
- Stith, S. M., and S. C. Farley. ‘‘A Predictive Model of Male Spousal Violence.’’ Journal of Family Violence 8, no. 2 (1993): 183–201.
- Stith, S. M., K. H. Rosen, K. A. Middleton, A. L. Busch, K. Lundeberg, and R. P. Carlton. ‘‘The Intergenerational Transmission of Spouse Abuse: A Meta-Analysis.’’ Journal of Marriage and Family 62 (2000): 640–654.
- Stover, C. S. ‘‘Domestic Violence Research: What Have We Learned and Where Do We Go from Here?’’ Journal of Interpersonal Violence 20, no. 4 (2005): 449–454.
- Straus, M. ‘‘Injury and Frequency of Assault and the ‘Representative Sample Fallacy’ in Measuring Wife Beating and Child Abuse.’’ In Straus and Gelles, Physical Violence in American Families, 1990a.
- ———. ‘‘Ordinary Violence, Child Abuse, and Wife Beating: What Do They Have in Common?’’ In Straus and Gelles, Physical Violence in American Families, 1990b.
- Straus, M., R. J. Gelles, and S. K. Steinmetz. Behind Closed Doors: Violence in the American Family. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1980.
- Swinford, S. P., A. DeMaris, S. A. Cernkovich, and P. C. Giordana. ‘‘Harsh Physical Discipline in Childhood and Violence in Later Romantic Involvements: The Mediating Role of Problem Behaviors.’’ Journal of Marriage and Family 62 (2000): 508–519.
- Thornberry, T. P. Violent Families and Youth Violence. Fact Sheet #21, December. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1994.
- Walker, L. E. The Battered Woman Syndrome. New York: Springer, 1984.
- Webster-Stratton, C., S. Mihalic, A. Fagan, D. Arnold, T. Taylor, and C. Tingley. Blueprints for Violence Prevention: The Incredible Years: Parent, Teacher and Child Training. Boulder: University of Colorado, Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, 2001.
- White, H. R., and C. S. Widom. ‘‘Intimate Partner Violence among Abused and Neglected Children in Young Adulthood: The Mediating Effects of Early Aggression, Antisocial Personality, Hostility and Alcohol Problems.’’ Aggressive Behavior 29 (2003): 332–345.
- Widom, C. S. ‘‘The Cycle of Violence.’’ Science 244 (1989): 160–244.
- Widom, C. S., and M. G. Maxfield. An Update on the ‘‘Cycle of Violence.’’ Research in Brief. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, 2001.
- Widom, C. S., B. L. Weiler, and L. B. Cottler. ‘‘Childhood Victimization and Drug Abuse: A Comparison of Prospective and Retrospective Findings.’’ Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 867, no. 6 (1999): 867–880.
- Wolfe, D. A., K. Scott, C. Wekerle, and A. L. Pittman. ‘‘Child Maltreatment: Risk of Adjustment Problems and Dating Violence in Adolescence.’’ Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 40, no. 3 (2001): 282–289.