Criminology Degree Requirements

Criminology degree requirements include theory, methods, and law, with elective tracks, GPA minimums, and prerequisites that vary by program. Whether a student is pursuing a two-year associate credential, a four-year bachelor’s degree, a graduate master’s program, or a doctoral degree, each level carries distinct academic expectations, credit requirements, and prerequisite structures. Understanding these requirements in advance allows prospective students to select programs that match their preparation and goals, plan their coursework efficiently, and avoid common pitfalls that delay graduation or complicate transfer.

Introduction

Academic requirements for criminology degrees reflect the field’s dual identity as both a theoretical social science and a professionally oriented discipline. Programs that train future researchers emphasize quantitative methods, criminological theory, and scholarly writing, while programs preparing students for criminal justice careers emphasize law, administration, and applied skills. Despite these differences in orientation, all accredited criminology and criminal justice programs share a recognizable core of requirements: foundational courses in theory and research methods, exposure to the major components of the criminal justice system, and elective coursework that allows students to build areas of specialization.

Criminology and criminal justice degree programs at every level are shaped by accreditation standards, institutional policies, and disciplinary norms established by professional organizations including the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS) and the American Society of Criminology (ASC). The ACJS has published certification standards for undergraduate and graduate programs that specify the content areas, credit minimums, and faculty qualifications programs must satisfy to demonstrate quality. While ACJS certification is not universally required, its standards are widely referenced by programs seeking to align their requirements with national benchmarks (ACJS, 2014).

This article examines criminology degree requirements at each level of study, covering credit hour totals, core course expectations, GPA and prerequisite standards, thesis and capstone requirements, and the ways in which transfer credit and prior learning may satisfy degree requirements.

General Education and Prerequisite Requirements

Before entering the major curriculum, criminology students at most institutions must complete general education requirements and, in some cases, specific prerequisite courses. These foundational requirements shape who is eligible to enroll in upper-division criminology coursework and affect both transfer students and those beginning their studies at a four-year institution.

General Education Requirements

Associate and bachelor’s degree students in criminology typically complete 30–45 credit hours of general education coursework alongside their major requirements. General education sequences vary by institution but typically include English composition, mathematics or statistics, natural sciences, social and behavioral sciences, humanities, and in many cases a diversity or global perspectives requirement (Gaston, 2015). These requirements ensure that graduates possess broad analytical, writing, and quantitative skills that support advanced work in the major.

For criminology students, social science general education courses are particularly relevant. Introductory sociology, psychology, and political science provide conceptual foundations for understanding criminal behavior, social control, and the political dimensions of criminal justice policy. Students who complete these courses as part of their general education arrive at upper-division criminology courses with richer disciplinary context than those whose general education is confined to unrelated fields (Pratt & Cullen, 2000). Many criminology programs specifically recommend or require introductory sociology and introductory psychology as prerequisites, reflecting the field’s theoretical debts to both disciplines (Cullen & Wilcox, 2010).

Statistics is among the most important general education prerequisites for criminology majors. Research on criminology programs finds that students who enter upper-division methods courses without prior statistics preparation perform significantly worse than those with introductory statistics backgrounds (McGloin & Thomas, 2016). Many programs have responded by requiring college algebra or introductory statistics as prerequisites for research methods courses.

Prerequisite Courses for Upper-Division Study

Most four-year criminology programs require students to complete one or two prerequisite courses before enrolling in upper-division (300- and 400-level) coursework. Common prerequisites include introduction to criminology or criminal justice, introduction to sociology, and introductory statistics (Payne, 2016). Some programs require students to achieve a minimum GPA in these prerequisite courses—commonly 2.0 or 2.5—before advancing to upper-division study.

Transfer students who have completed equivalent coursework at other institutions may satisfy prerequisites through transcript evaluation. Community college students planning to transfer should work with both their current institution and their target four-year program early in their studies to ensure that the courses they complete will be accepted as prerequisites. Discrepancies in course content or credit hours can result in transfer students being required to complete additional prerequisites, delaying their progress toward the degree (Reitman, 2018).

Associate Degree Requirements in Criminology and Criminal Justice

Associate degrees in criminology and criminal justice are offered primarily by community colleges and require 60–65 credit hours, typically completed in two years of full-time study. These programs are designed either as transfer pathways to four-year institutions or as terminal credentials providing direct access to entry-level criminal justice employment.

Credit Hour and Core Course Requirements

The core curriculum of a criminology or criminal justice associate degree typically includes 18–24 credit hours of required major courses alongside general education requirements. Standard required courses include introduction to criminal justice, introduction to criminology, criminal law, courts and the judicial process, corrections, and introduction to research methods or statistics (AACC, 2019). Some programs also require a course in police and society or juvenile justice as part of the core.

The American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) reports that criminal justice is among the ten most commonly offered associate degree fields nationally, with programs available in virtually every state (AACC, 2022). Program requirements vary meaningfully across institutions: a community college in California may require students to complete Introduction to Law Enforcement, Criminology, and California Criminal Procedure, while a program in New York may emphasize urban crime, corrections, and court processes reflecting local criminal justice structures.

Students seeking associate degrees that will transfer efficiently to four-year programs should prioritize programs with formal articulation agreements with regional universities. Articulation agreements specify exactly which community college courses will satisfy requirements at the receiving institution, dramatically reducing the risk of credit loss upon transfer (Handel, 2013). The California Community College system’s ASSIST database and similar articulation resources in other states allow students to verify transferability before enrolling in specific courses.

GPA and Graduation Requirements

Most associate programs require a minimum cumulative GPA of 2.0 for graduation, though some programs set a higher standard for major courses—commonly 2.5 or above. Students who fall below the minimum GPA may be placed on academic probation and required to meet with an academic advisor to develop a remediation plan. Associate programs generally do not require a thesis or capstone project, though some programs include a field practicum, service-learning component, or culminating seminar in their requirements.

Financial aid eligibility also imposes GPA requirements. Federal financial aid programs including Pell Grants and subsidized student loans require recipients to maintain satisfactory academic progress (SAP), typically defined as a cumulative GPA of 2.0 and completion of at least 67 percent of attempted credit hours (Federal Student Aid, 2023). Students who fall below SAP standards may lose financial aid eligibility and must appeal or meet specific improvement benchmarks to regain it.

Bachelor’s Degree Requirements in Criminology

The bachelor’s degree in criminology or criminal justice requires 120 credit hours at most institutions, distributed across general education requirements, major core requirements, elective coursework within the major, and unrestricted elective credits. Full-time students typically complete bachelor’s degrees in four years, though many students take longer due to part-time enrollment, course retakes, or changing majors.

Core Major Requirements

The core of a bachelor’s degree in criminology typically requires 30–45 credit hours of required major courses. The ACJS Minimum Standards for Criminal Justice Programs specify that undergraduate programs should include content across five domains: (1) the nature and purpose of the criminal justice system, including law enforcement, courts, and corrections; (2) criminological theory and the etiology of criminal behavior; (3) research methods and statistics; (4) criminal law and legal procedure; and (5) at least one applied or policy-focused course addressing contemporary issues in crime and justice (ACJS, 2014). Programs meeting these standards ensure that graduates have encountered the full disciplinary landscape before specializing.

Standard required courses in bachelor’s criminology programs include criminological theory, research methods in criminal justice, criminal law and procedure, policing and society, courts and adjudication, corrections, juvenile justice, and a senior seminar or capstone course (Lilly, Cullen, & Ball, 2019). Theory courses typically survey classical, positivist, strain, social learning, social control, labeling, conflict, and developmental perspectives, providing students with an intellectual toolkit for analyzing criminal behavior and criminal justice policy (Cullen & Agnew, 2011). Research methods courses introduce students to the logic of social science inquiry, data collection techniques, and elementary data analysis, often using statistical software such as SPSS or R.

Many programs now require or strongly recommend a statistics course beyond what general education requires. Research by Nolan and colleagues (2006) found that criminology graduates who completed at least two methods or statistics courses were significantly more likely to find employment in research and policy positions, and significantly better prepared for graduate study, than those who completed only one. Programs aligned with ACJS standards incorporate methods and statistics as non-optional core requirements.

A typical four-year course sequence illustrates how institutions distribute the 120 required credit hours across degree levels and content areas:

Year	Semester	Courses
1	Fall	English Composition; Introduction to Sociology; College Algebra or Statistics; General Education elective
1	Spring	Introduction to Criminology or Criminal Justice; Introduction to Psychology; English Literature or Humanities; General Education elective
2	Fall	Criminal Law and Procedure; Policing and Society; Statistics for Social Science; General Education elective
2	Spring	Courts and the Judicial Process; Corrections; Research Methods in Criminal Justice; General Education elective
3	Fall	Criminological Theory; Juvenile Justice; Major elective; Unrestricted elective
3	Spring	Major elective; Major elective; Internship preparation seminar; Unrestricted elective
4	Fall	Major elective; Internship (3–6 credits); Unrestricted elective
4	Spring	Senior Seminar or Capstone; Major elective; Unrestricted elective

This sequence is representative rather than universal; individual institutions structure their programs differently and may distribute general education requirements across all four years. Students should consult their program’s official degree audit tool—commonly available through the registrar or student information system—to track their own progress against specific requirements (Gaston, 2015).

Elective Tracks and Specializations

Bachelor’s programs in criminology typically allow students to choose 12–18 credit hours of elective courses within the major, enabling them to develop concentrations aligned with career interests. Common elective tracks include law enforcement and policing, corrections and rehabilitation, forensic investigation, juvenile justice and youth policy, victimology, cybercrime, homeland security, and criminal justice policy and administration (Payne, 2016).

Students planning careers in law enforcement benefit from elective coursework in police administration, ethics, use of force and civil liability, criminal procedure, and community policing. Courses in police-community relations and procedural justice are increasingly central to law enforcement curricula following sustained public attention to policing practices; graduates who can speak to these frameworks are well positioned for both patrol roles and administrative advancement (Tyler, 2006). Those interested in corrections may take courses in correctional treatment, offender reentry, sentencing and punishment theory, community supervision, and the sociology of imprisonment. This track prepares graduates for roles in probation and parole agencies, state and federal correctional systems, and nonprofit reentry organizations.

Students with forensic interests should seek programs offering courses in forensic psychology, crime scene investigation, criminalistics, and evidence collection, ideally supplemented by laboratory components or internship placements with medical examiner offices, crime laboratories, or investigative agencies. The forensic track pairs well with coursework in biology or chemistry for students considering careers in forensic science laboratory work, where degree requirements at hiring agencies sometimes specify natural science coursework in addition to the criminal justice major (Saferstein, 2018).

Students interested in cybercrime and digital investigation should pursue electives in computer crime, digital forensics, cybersecurity law, and online criminal behavior. This is among the fastest-growing specializations in criminal justice education, reflecting the rapid expansion of cybercrime as a law enforcement priority (Holt, Bossler, & Seigfried-Spellar, 2017). The victimology track, offered at a growing number of institutions, covers crime victims’ experiences, trauma, legal rights, and restorative practices, preparing graduates for roles in victim advocacy, crisis intervention, and social services.

The selection of elective courses should be driven by deliberate career planning. Academic advisors, alumni panels, and internship coordinators can provide insight into which course combinations are most valued by local and national employers. Career services offices at many universities maintain employer survey data indicating which coursework is most frequently requested by hiring agencies, which can guide students in their elective selections (Rydberg & Terrill, 2010).

GPA Requirements and Academic Standing

Bachelor’s programs in criminology typically require a minimum cumulative GPA of 2.0 for graduation. Many programs additionally require a minimum GPA within the major—commonly 2.0 or 2.5—for students to continue taking upper-division major courses or to be awarded the degree. Students falling below major GPA requirements may be placed on departmental probation and counseled to repeat courses or reduce their course load.

Some programs use higher GPA thresholds as gatekeeping mechanisms for popular or competitive tracks. Law enforcement preparation programs at some institutions require a 2.5 GPA and no criminal record for internship placement. Graduate school preparation tracks may informally require a 3.0 GPA for faculty recommendation letters. Students who aspire to graduate study should target a GPA of 3.3 or above, as competitive master’s and doctoral programs typically admit students whose undergraduate GPAs fall in the 3.3–4.0 range, with the median admitted student at leading programs often above 3.5 (Kreager & Kruttschnitt, 2018).

Internship and Field Experience Requirements

Many bachelor’s programs in criminology require or strongly encourage students to complete a supervised internship as a condition of graduation. Internship requirements typically range from 120 to 240 hours (equivalent to 3–6 credit hours), completed in a law enforcement agency, court, correctional facility, prosecutor’s office, victim services organization, or related site. Students may receive academic credit for internships contingent on the completion of written reflections, agency supervisor evaluations, and regular meetings with a faculty internship coordinator (Payne, 2016).

The value of internship experience for post-graduation employment is substantial. Research on criminal justice graduates consistently finds that those who completed internships were more likely to find employment in criminal justice and related fields within six months of graduation, and reported higher starting salaries than those who did not complete field placements (Farkas & Manning, 1997). Employers in criminal justice frequently report that internship experience is among the most important factors in hiring decisions for entry-level positions.

Students should begin planning internship placements at least one semester in advance, as competitive sites—particularly federal law enforcement agencies, major metropolitan police departments, and well-regarded nonprofit organizations—fill available slots early. Faculty advisors and career services staff can assist with applications, background checks, and the completion of placement paperwork.

Master’s Degree Requirements in Criminology

Master’s degrees in criminology and criminal justice require 30–36 credit hours beyond the bachelor’s degree, typically completed in one to two years of full-time study or two to three years of part-time enrollment. Requirements vary significantly depending on whether the program is research-focused or professionally oriented.

Core Course and Credit Requirements

Research-focused master’s programs typically require advanced seminars in criminological theory, quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, and a specialized seminar in the student’s area of concentration (Pratt, 2008). Students in thesis-track programs generally complete 24–27 credit hours of coursework and 6–9 credit hours of thesis research credits. The thesis must demonstrate original empirical research conducted under the supervision of a faculty advisor and approved by a thesis committee, typically comprising three faculty members.

Professional master’s programs may require fewer theory and methods courses and substitute applied courses in criminal justice administration, leadership, organizational behavior, budget and finance, and policy analysis. Practicum or capstone requirements replace or supplement the thesis, with students completing projects in collaboration with criminal justice agencies, nonprofits, or government bodies. These programs are often designed to be completed on a part-time basis, with courses offered in evenings, weekends, or hybrid formats.

Admissions Prerequisites and GPA Standards

Admission to master’s programs in criminology typically requires a bachelor’s degree with a minimum GPA of 3.0, though competitive programs may effectively require higher averages in practice. Letters of recommendation from faculty or supervisors, a statement of purpose, and writing samples are standard components of master’s applications (Nettles & Millett, 2006). GRE scores have been required by many programs historically but are increasingly waived or made optional.

Within the program, master’s students are typically required to maintain a 3.0 GPA to remain in good academic standing. Students who fall below a 3.0 in any semester may be placed on academic probation, and a pattern of grades below B may result in dismissal from the program. Incompletes and course withdrawals are tracked by graduate programs and may trigger academic review if they appear to indicate lack of progress (Golde, 2005).

Thesis and Non-Thesis Tracks

The choice between thesis and non-thesis tracks is among the most consequential decisions a master’s student makes, as it shapes both the experience of graduate study and career outcomes. Students who intend to pursue doctoral education should almost always choose the thesis track, as the thesis provides essential research training, a writing sample for doctoral applications, and evidence of the capacity for independent scholarly work (Nettles & Millett, 2006).

Students who intend to remain in practice careers may find the non-thesis track more appropriate, particularly if the practicum or capstone project aligns with their professional goals. However, some research suggests that the analytical rigor of the thesis track produces stronger critical thinking and writing skills even for practice-oriented graduates (Golde, 2005). Students uncertain about their long-term goals should consult with faculty advisors and alumni in both tracks before making a decision.

Doctoral Degree Requirements in Criminology

Doctoral programs in criminology and criminal justice are the most demanding in terms of both time and intellectual requirements. The PhD typically requires four to six years of full-time study beyond the bachelor’s degree, including coursework, qualifying examinations, and dissertation research.

Coursework and Qualifying Examinations

Doctoral students in criminology typically complete 60–90 credit hours beyond the bachelor’s degree, including 30–45 hours of formal coursework and the remainder in dissertation research credits. Coursework covers advanced criminological theory, quantitative methods (including multivariate statistics, survival analysis, and multilevel modeling), qualitative methods, specialized seminars in subfield areas, and in many programs a proseminar introducing students to the academic profession and research publication process (Golde, 2005).

Following coursework, doctoral students take qualifying examinations designed to assess mastery of the field’s major theoretical traditions, methodological approaches, and substantive areas. Examination formats vary: some programs use written examinations taken over several days, while others require students to produce extended literature reviews or research proposals in their area of specialization. Failure on qualifying examinations typically results in one opportunity to retake, with dismissal from the program following a second failure (Nettles & Millett, 2006).

Dissertation Requirements

The doctoral dissertation is the defining requirement of PhD training—an original, book-length empirical study that makes a contribution to criminological knowledge. Dissertation research is conducted under the supervision of a faculty advisor and must be approved by a dissertation committee, typically comprising the advisor and three to five additional faculty members (Lovitts, 2001). Students must defend their dissertation in a formal oral examination before the committee, which may approve the dissertation, require revisions, or in rare cases reject it.

The dissertation process is notoriously difficult and is associated with high attrition rates in doctoral education. Lovitts (2001) found that approximately 40–50 percent of students who enter doctoral programs do not complete their degrees, with the highest attrition occurring after students transition from coursework to independent dissertation research. Successful completion is associated with close mentoring relationships, financial support through assistantships and fellowships, peer community, and a well-defined and manageable dissertation project (Golde, 2005).

The National Institute of Justice graduate research fellowship and National Science Foundation doctoral dissertation improvement grants provide supplemental funding for doctoral students whose dissertation research aligns with agency priorities, and competition for these awards is valuable professional development regardless of outcome.

Transfer Credit, Prior Learning, and Degree Completion Pathways

A significant proportion of criminology and criminal justice students enter four-year programs with credits earned elsewhere—at community colleges, other universities, military training programs, or through standardized examinations. Understanding how these credits are evaluated and applied can substantially reduce the time and cost required to complete a degree.

Transfer Credit Policies

When students transfer from one institution to another, their previously earned credits are evaluated on a course-by-course basis by the receiving institution’s registrar and academic department. Credits from regionally accredited institutions are generally accepted, though individual courses may be mapped to equivalent requirements, accepted as general electives, or in some cases not accepted at all if the content is deemed insufficiently equivalent (Handel, 2013). Credits earned at nationally accredited institutions—common in for-profit higher education—are frequently not accepted by public and nonprofit universities, creating a significant trap for students who enroll at nationally accredited schools expecting their credits to transfer.

Criminal justice courses are often subject to departmental review before being accepted toward major requirements. A course titled “Introduction to Law Enforcement” at a community college may satisfy the policing requirement at one four-year institution but be accepted only as a general elective at another, depending on the syllabus content and the receiving department’s assessment. Students should request syllabi from their community college courses and submit them during the transfer evaluation process to support full credit recognition (Reitman, 2018). Articulation agreements, where they exist, remove this uncertainty by guaranteeing specific credit mappings in advance.

Prior Learning Assessment

Prior learning assessment (PLA) allows students to earn college credit for knowledge and skills acquired outside the classroom—through work experience, military service, professional certifications, or self-directed study. The Council for Adult and Experiential Learning (CAEL) has been the primary national organization promoting PLA practices in higher education since the 1970s, and many public universities now offer formal PLA pathways for criminal justice students (Klein-Collins, 2010).

For criminal justice students, PLA is particularly relevant in several areas. Law enforcement officers with substantial field experience may petition for credit in policing, criminal procedure, and criminal law courses. Military veterans who served in military police, intelligence, or security roles may similarly qualify for credit toward criminal justice core requirements. The American Council on Education’s ACE Military Guide evaluates military training programs and recommends college credit equivalencies that many universities accept directly.

Standardized examinations provide another route to prior learning credit. The College Level Examination Program (CLEP) offers exams in introductory sociology and introductory psychology—both relevant to criminology programs—that allow students to earn credit by examination rather than by completing a full course. Some criminology programs also accept DANTES Subject Standardized Tests (DSSTs), which cover a wider range of content areas including criminal justice.

Degree Completion Programs

Many universities have developed accelerated degree completion programs specifically for students who have accumulated substantial college credits but have not completed a bachelor’s degree. These programs, sometimes called “2+2” programs when partnered with community colleges, or “adult degree completion” programs when serving working adults more broadly, often allow criminology students to complete their remaining requirements in a flexible format (Allen & Seaman, 2017).

Degree completion programs typically require 60 credit hours at the four-year institution after transfer, with liberal policies for accepting prior learning credit and professional certifications. Law enforcement officers and correctional personnel who began college coursework earlier in their careers and now seek advancement-related degree credentials are a primary audience for these programs. Students interested in degree completion pathways should contact the admissions offices of regional universities directly to understand their specific credit acceptance policies and prior learning assessment processes.

Conclusion

Criminology degree requirements reflect the field’s dual commitments to theoretical rigor and practical relevance. At every level—from associate through doctoral—programs combine foundational coursework in theory, research methods, and criminal law with elective tracks that enable students to develop specialized expertise. GPA standards, prerequisite courses, internship requirements, and thesis or capstone expectations vary across institutions and degree levels, making it essential for prospective students to research specific program requirements carefully before enrolling.

Students who plan their academic trajectories thoughtfully—completing relevant prerequisites, maintaining competitive GPAs, seeking out thesis and research opportunities at the undergraduate and master’s levels, and choosing elective tracks aligned with their career goals—are significantly better positioned for competitive graduate admissions and criminal justice employment than those who approach requirements as minimums to be met rather than opportunities to be maximized. The requirements that govern criminology education are not arbitrary hurdles; they are the accumulated judgment of scholars and practitioners about what knowledge and skills a criminology graduate must possess.

References

Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. (2014). ACJS certification standards for college/university criminal justice baccalaureate and master’s degree programs. ACJS. https://www.acjs.org/page/CertificationStandards
Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2017). Digital compass learning: Distance education enrollment report 2017. Babson Survey Research Group.
American Association of Community Colleges. (2019). Criminal justice program curriculum guide. AACC.
American Association of Community Colleges. (2022). Fast facts 2022. AACC. https://www.aacc.nche.edu/research-trends/fast-facts/
Cullen, F. T., & Agnew, R. (2011). Criminological Theory: Past to Present (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Cullen, F. T., & Wilcox, P. (Eds.). (2010). Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory. SAGE.
Farkas, M. A., & Manning, P. K. (1997). The occupational culture of corrections and police officers. Journal of Crime and Justice, 20(2), 51–68.
Federal Student Aid. (2023). Satisfactory academic progress. U.S. Department of Education. https://studentaid.gov/understand-aid/eligibility/requirements/satisfactory-academic-progress
Gaston, P. L. (2015). General Education Transformed: How We Can, Why We Must. Association of American Colleges and Universities.
Golde, C. M. (2005). The role of the department and discipline in doctoral student attrition: Lessons from four departments. Journal of Higher Education, 76(6), 669–700.
Handel, S. J. (2013). Increasing higher education access and success using a new transfer and articulation paradigm: It’s not just about the numbers. New Directions for Higher Education, 162, 27–38.
Holt, T. J., Bossler, A. M., & Seigfried-Spellar, K. C. (2017). Cybercrime and Digital Forensics: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Klein-Collins, R. (2010). Fueling the Race to Postsecondary Success: A 48-Institution Study of Prior Learning Assessment and Adult Student Outcomes. Council for Adult and Experiential Learning.
Kreager, D. A., & Kruttschnitt, C. (2018). Inmate society in the era of mass incarceration. Annual Review of Criminology, 1, 261–283.
Lilly, J. R., Cullen, F. T., & Ball, R. A. (2019). Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences (7th ed.). SAGE.
Lovitts, B. E. (2001). Leaving the Ivory Tower: The Causes and Consequences of Departure from Doctoral Study. Rowman & Littlefield.
McGloin, J. M., & Thomas, K. J. (2016). Incentives for collective deviance: Group size and changes in perceived risk, cost, and reward. Criminology, 54(3), 459–486.
Nettles, M. T., & Millett, C. M. (2006). Three Magic Letters: Getting to Ph.D. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Nolan, J. J., Haas, S. M., & Napier, J. S. (2006). Estimating the impact of classification error on the statistical accuracy of uniform crime reports. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 22(4), 305–334.
Payne, B. K. (2016). White-Collar Crime: The Essentials (2nd ed.). SAGE.
Pratt, T. C. (2008). Addicted to Incarceration: Corrections Policy and the Politics of Misinformation in the United States. SAGE.
Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 38(3), 931–964.
Reitman, J. (2018). Community college pathways and transfer in criminal justice education. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 29(3), 412–431.
Rydberg, J., & Terrill, W. (2010). The effect of higher education on police behavior. Police Quarterly, 13(1), 92–120.
Saferstein, R. (2018). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science (12th ed.). Pearson.
Tyler, T. R. (2006). Why People Obey the Law. Princeton University Press.

Related Articles