Psychoanalytic Feminism
Psychoanalytic feminism is based on the work of Sigmund Freud and the psychoanalytic theory associated with him. This branch of feminism contends that gender is based upon the psychosexual stages of individual development. Feminists who support this theory contend that gender inequality stems from a variety of childhood experiences that are taught to and internalized by the child. Essentially, boys are taught to believe themselves to be masculine and girls are taught that they should view themselves as feminine. From this process, the male is ascribed characteristics that encourage competition and the ability to explore his environment, while the female is taught to remain docile and within the vicinity of the home. This theoretical orientation illustrates the manner by which language shapes subjectivity and gender definitions within the family (Hedges 1996). This process leads to a social system in which men are afforded more privilege and competitive advantage than are women. Much of the basis for this view on feminism is drawn from Freud’s work in which he analyzed traditional heterosexuality and gender roles as being an arbitrary social construct rather than a matter of nature, physiology, or genetics (Hedges 1996). One interesting limitation to this theory questions the viability of its framework, which is based on Oedipus (for sons) and Electra (for daughters) complexes in a society in which the two-parent family (a natural dynamic of Freud’s Oedipus/Electra nexus) is much less common than it was in the society that Freud knew (Hedges 1996).
Cultural Feminism
The term ‘‘cultural feminism’’ may seem a bit counterintuitive to many who are not familiar with this type of feminism. This is because cultural feminism does not contend that culture or socialization is the root cause of differences between men and women, as the term would seem to imply. Rather, cultural feminists contend that there are inherent biological differences between male and female members of society and that these differences are inevitable (Deegan 1986; Lewis 2006. Going further, these differences should be accepted as part of nature and embraced. This theoretical perspective holds that women are indeed superior in virtue compared with men (Lewis 2006). Cultural feminists specifically point toward moral deficiencies among men that have been viewed as socially acceptable (the ‘‘boys will be boys’’ mentality) while noting the emphasis on moral purity that has been the hallmark of a woman’s self-worth and social value in a number of societies. Cultural feminists see women as inherently more kind and gentle, and they ‘‘believe that because of these differences, if women ruled the world there would be no more war and it would be a better place’’ (p. 1). Cultural feminists are often nonpolitical and tend to focus instead on change within individual belief systems. This means that these advocates often address micro levels of change rather than the macro levels common in Marxist and socialist feminism.
Minorities and Feminism
Feminist scholars have bemoaned the fact that in addressing women’s issues, the feminist movement has traditionally failed to provide adequate analysis of the unique issues presented to women of diverse racial and cultural groups (Hanser 2002). Because of this, critics have likened feminism to a concept that is limited to the historical and social experiences of middle-class white women (ibid.). However, these experiences have often been quite different from those of African American women, Latinas, and Asian American women (Hanser 2002). Indeed, during the early years of the feminist movement, there were documented cases of racism and discrimination between white American and African American feminists (Baird 1992). Issues of race, racism, and institutional oppression will likely be relevant to African American women but not to most white women (Baird 1992; Hanser 2002). The socialization of Asian American and Latin American women is likely to emphasize even further subservience and other dynamics that are laced with traditional values from their respective cultures. Further, there may be issues of religion as well as racial and cultural differences that should be taken into consideration (Shaheen 1998). This is particularly true for women who are of the Muslim faith and/or community (Shaheen 1998). Because of the vast array of differences that can be encountered among women and since many mainstream white American women are not necessarily likely to be well versed in these cultural differences, an awareness has developed of the need to have feminist schools of thought that can address these differences in an effective and supportive manner.